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Fifteenth  Century  Pilgrim 
Life  on  the  Mediterranean 


AUG  iS  '920 


By 
LOWELL  JOSEPH  RAGATZ 


PAUL  PEARLMAN 

Publisher 
WASHINGTON 


Fifteenth  Century  Pilgrim  Life 
on  the  Mediterranean 


BY 
LOWELL  JOSEPH  RAGATZ 


PAUL  PEARLMAN 

WASHINGTON 


•-  ♦     • 


■>    •  *.  •  .    • 


•    .•' 


»••  •»•»• 


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TABLE  OF  CONTENTS 

Chapter  Page 

Preface - 5 

I  Preparations  for  the  Voyage 9 

II  A  Pilgrim  Ship 12 

III  The  Boat  Personnel , 14 

IV  Community  Life  at  Sea _ 16 

V  Bibliography 20 


677130 


PREFACE 

In  speaking  of  large-scale  movements  of  west  European  Chris- 
tians to  the  Holy  Land,  one  is  prone  to  think  only  of  the  several 
great  crusading  expeditions  which,  from  the  close  of  the  eleventh 
century,  led  hordes  of  occidentals  to  take  the  Cross,  forsake  their 
homes  and,  for  the  love  of  God  or  their  own  material  gain,  caused 
them  to  resolutely  turn  their  faces  eastward  in  order  that  they 
might  battle  against  the  infidel. 

This  is  not  unnatural,  for  such  mass  precipitations  upon  the 
Levant  were  spectacular  military  enterprises  which  wrought  very 
definite  political  changes  and  romantic  episodes  associated  with 
them  have  appealed  to  popular  fancy  throughout  the  ages.  How- 
ever, sight  must  not  be  lost  of  the  fact  that  the  Crusades  were,  in 
reality,  mere  reflections  of  an  already  long-existent  burning  interest 
in  the  Near  East,  albeit  in  exaggerated  form,  and  that,  both  before 
they  opened  and  after  their  close,  large  numbers  of  devout  men 
and  women  reverently  made  the  long  trip  to  Palestine  as  palmers 
and  there  rendered  spiritual  homage  in  the  reputed  scenes  of  the 
Savior's  activities. 

The  custom  developed  as  an  outgrowth  of  the  familiar  habit  of 
going  on  pilgrimage  to  the  shrines  of  local  saints  with  which  the 
old  world  abounded  and  of  undertaking  the  less  frequent  one  to 
Rome.  The  growing  popularity  of  the  far  journey  is  revealed 
by  the  fact  that,  while  but  seven  great  parties  are  known  to 
have  set  forth  from  west  Europe  in  the  eighth  century,  twelve 
did  so  in  the  ninth,  as  did  sixteen  in  the  tenth  and  one  hundred 
seventy  in  the  eleventh.  Hundreds  and,  in  some  cases,  even 
thousands  of  individuals  travelled  in  each  of  these. 

Then,  in  the  intervals  between  the  successive  Crusades,  an 
ever-growing  number  of  occidentals  visited  the  scenes  made 
familiar  through  Biblical  history  and,  following  the  last  of  the 
armed  expeditions,  by  which  time  accurate  knowledge  of  the 
Levant  was  general,  such  pilgrimages  ceased  to  be  novelties  merit- 
ing particular  contemporary  comment. 

Whereas  the  participants  in  the  great  military  movements  were 
activated  largely  by  mercenary  motives  and  frequently  remained 
in  the  Near  East  as  land  owners  or  merchants,  the  pilgrims  as  a 
whole  were  moved  by  piety  and  the  great  majority  returned  to 
more  familiar  environments  within  a  few  months  at  most. 

Palestine  could  be  reached  from  Europe  by  two  routes — one 
overland,  the  other  by  sea.  The  early  Crusaders  at  least  largely 
followed  the  former.  Thus,  we  find  Peter  the  Hermit  moving 
across  Germany,  Hungary  and  the  Balkan  Peninsula  to  Constan- 
tinople and  Godfrey  of  Bouillon  and  Raymond  of  Toulouse  like- 
wise using  well-known  highways  during  the  first  of  these  under- 


takings.  Louis  VII  and  Conrad  III  did  the  same  in  the  second 
and  Frederick  Barbarossa  followed  the  example  of  his  predeces- 
sors in  the  third. 

But,  from  the  outset,  the  sea  route  was  also  used,  if  only  in 
part.  In  the  First  Crusade,  Duke  Robert  of  Normandy  and  Count 
Stephen  of  Blois  sailed  from  Brindisi  to  Durazzo  and  proceeded 
from  thence  by  land.  Similarly,  in  the  third,  Richard  the  Lion 
Hearted  and  Philip  Augustus,  with  their  respective  followers, 
took  passage  on  vessels.  But  unlike  Robert  and  Stephen  who 
had  merely  crossed  the  Adriatic,  these  two  set  forth  across  the 
Mediterranean  direct  to  Acre.  Thus,  gradually,  the  sea  was  put 
to  greater  service  until  we  find  the  Fourth  Crusade  conducted 
entirely  by  the  water  way. 

What  was  true  in  the  case  of  the  great  military  forces  was  like- 
wise true  with  respect  to  the  pilgrim  bands.  Instead  of  traversing 
southeastern  Europe  and  Asia  Minor  on  foot  as  in  the  past,  they 
increasingly  took  to  the  ocean.  While  the  land  trip  was  less  costly, 
it  was  more  time-consuming  and  far  more  wearisome.  But  the 
primary  reason  for  the  gradual  abandonment  of  the  early  route 
is  to  be  found  in  the  growing  danger  arising  first,  from  the  lament- 
able hostility  between  the  Christian  West  and  East  and  later  from 
the  more  natural  enmity  between  the  Christian  Occident  and  the 
Moslem  Levant. 

If  the  Emperor  Alexius,  at  the  close  of  the  eleventh  century, 
was  suspected  of  treachery,  the  open  acts  of  his  successors  showed 
in  no  unmistakable  manner  their  marked  unfriendliness  for  the 
Latins  and  Germans.  From  allies  of  convenience,  the  ruler  of  the 
East  and  those  of  the  West  became  bitter  enemies  and  feeling 
against  the  Byzantines  reached  such  heights  as  to  culminate  in  the 
sack  of  Constantinople  in  1204.  Though  the  land  route  was  once 
more  safe  enough  during  the  period  of  the  Latin  Empire  on  the 
Bosphorus  (1204-1261),  the  inevitable  disruption  of  that  state  at 
the  hands  of  the  Greeks  and  their  subsequent  loss  of  the  city  to  the 
Ottomans  in  the  fifteenth  century  practically  closed  again  the  all 
but  deserted  highway  to  the  Holy  Land. 

Under  such  circumstances,  the  sea  route  came  to  be  employed 
almost  exclusively  and  the  coastal  cities  of  Italy  and  southern 
France  became  great  points  of  departure.  An  elaborate  passenger 
service  developed  and,  though  closely  linked  with  trade,  the 
transportation  of  palmers  became  a  business  of  first  "class  impor- 
tance, not  unlike  the  carrying  of  emigrants  in  more  recent  times. 
Special  tourist  ships  were  constructed,  laws  governing  the  relations 
between  ticket  holders  and  members  of  the  shipping  interest  were 
formulated  and,  under  the  stimulus  of  competition,  passage  might 
be  secured  under  very  favorable  circumstances. 


The  journals  of  certain  of  these  latter  clay  travelers  have  come 
down  to  us.  Outstanding  among  them  is  that  of  Brother  Felix 
Fabri  of  the  Dominican  order  who  left  his  monastery  at  Ulm, 
Germany,  on  two  occasions,  in  1480  and  again  in  1484,  to  journey 
from  Venice  to  Jerusalem. 

The  account  of  his  second  trip,  written,  as  he  himself  tells  us,  in 
such  detail  and  with  such  accuracy  that  his  less  fortunate  brethren 
who  were  obliged  to  remain  near  the  scenes  of  their  labours 
might  undertake  the  voyage  vicariously,  throws  most  interesting 
light  on  pilgrim  life  on  the  Mediterranean  in  the  fifteenth  cen- 
tury when  the  passenger  service  had  been  fully  organized.  It  is 
our  purpose  to  learn  from  his  record  what  conditions  surrounded  a 
typical  journey  to  the  East  at  that  time. 

L.  J.  R. 
Prairie  du  Sac,  Wisconsin, 

1  August  1919. 


I 

PREPARATIONS  FOR   THE  VOYAGE 

Twice  each  year,  near  Easter  and  in  mid-summer,  thousands 
of  persons  wishing  to  go  on  pilgrimage  to  Jerusalem  by  the  water 
route  gathered  in  the  coastal  cities  of  Italy  and  France — Venice, 
Pisa,  Genoa,  Amalfi,  Bari,  Monopoli,  Trani,  Otranto  and  Mar- 
seilles— where  passage  might  be  taken  with  ship  captains  engaged 
in  conducting  such  a  passenger  service.  Though  trips  were  made 
at  other  seasons,  they  were  of  relatively  small  importance  com- 
pared to  the  great  movements  named. 

Parties  of  varying  size,  formed  in  communities  throughout 
France,  the  Germanics,  the  Italian  peninsula,  England,  Scotland, 
Ireland,  Spain,  Portugal,  the  Low  Countries  and  Scandinavia 
gradually  assembled  at  these  ports  of  embarkation  until  hundreds 
of  individuals,  all  awaiting  the  time  of  sailing,  had  congregated 
in  a  given  one.  The  presence  of  such  large  numbers  of  way- 
farers called  for  many  hostelries  and  wide-awake  inn-keepers 
stationed  men  in  their  hire  along  the  highways  traversed  by  the 
newcomers  to  vie  with  each  other  in  recommending  their  respec- 
tive employers'  establishment  above  all  others  in  the  city. 

After  having  arrived  at  their  destination  and  having  estab- 
lished themselves  in  some  tavern,  the  pilgrims  concluded  arrange- 
ments for  the  trip  as  soon  as  possible.  Various  groups,  find- 
ing each  other's  company  congenial,  banded  together  and  formed 
a  company  for  the  purpose  of  making  the  voyage  together. 

In  Venice,  white  banners  ensigned  with  a  red  Cross  were 
mounted  in  the  public  square  before  the  Doge's  palace.  There  was 
one  for  every  galley  that  would  make  the  next  trip  and  near  each 
stood  the  owners'  agents,  inviting  likely  individuals  to  take  pas- 
sage in  the  finest  vessel  braving  the  waves  at  the  most  reasonable 
rate.  These  worthies  were  constantly  wrangHng  with  one  an- 
other and  blows  between  them  were  not  infrequent. 

The  Venetian  transports  lay  in  the  Grand  Canal  and  were  open 
to  inspection  by  prospective  passengers  before  reserving  space. 
Having  decided  upon  a  given  one,  the  members  of  the  company 
wishing  to  engage  it  drew  up  a  contract  embracing  the  accommo- 
dations desired  and  presented  it  to  the  captain.  If  an  agreement 
could  be  arrived  at,  signatures  and  seals  were  affixed;  if  this  could 
not  be  done,  negotiations  were  opened  with  another  commanding 
officer.  Due  to  the  keen  rivalry  between  different  boat  owners,  pil- 
grims were,  on  the  whole,  able  to  secure  very  good  terms  indeed. 

The  contract  governing  the  voyage  of  the  German,  Brother 
Felix  Fabri,  in  1484,  has  been  preserved  and,  as  it  was  doubtless 


representative  of  its  kind,  the  main  points  are  set  forth  below.     It 
will  be  noted  that  the  details  were  most  carefully  worked  out. 

Article 

1.  The  trip  was  to  be  from  Venice  to  Joppa  and  return  and  was 

to  start  within  twenty-six  days. 

2.  The  galley  was  to  be  manned  by  experienced  sailors  and  was 

to  be  equipped  with  defensive  armaments. 

3.  No  unusual  stops  were  to  be  made.     Provisions  might,  how- 

ever, be  taken  on  at  any  time  anywhere  along  the  route. 

4.  Two  meals  of  food  and  drink  were  to  be  supplied  daily.     If 

indisposition  prevented  the  pilgrims  from  coming  to 
table,  they  were  to  be  served  in  their  quarters. 

5.  There  were  to  be  ample  stores  of  bread,  biscuit,  good  wine, 

sweet  water  freshly  put  on  board,  meat,  eggs  and  similar 
food  throughout  the  entire  voyage. 

6.  Wine  was  to  be  served  daily. 

7.  In  cases  where  the  galley  might  stop  near  a  harbor  without 

entering,  the  pilgrims,  on  reasonable  demand,  as  for  ex- 
ample, to  purchase  private  stores  of  provisions,  were  to  be 
supplied  with  boats  and  oarsmen  to  reach  that  port. 

8.  In  harbors  entered  by  the  galley,  the  pilgrims  were  to  pro- 

vide their  own  food  during  the  time  of  the  stop-over  if 
such  were  available.  Where  this  was  not  the  case,  it  was 
to  be  the  captain's  duty  to  furnish  meals  during  the  wait 
precisely  as  though  the  vessel  were  on  the  high  seas. 

9.  Passengers  were  to  be  protected  from  the  galley  slaves. 

10.  The  pilgrims  were  to  remain  in  the  Holy  Land  for  a  "reason- 

able" length  of  time  and  would  not  be  obliged  to  hurry, 
the  captain  at  all  times  acting  as  guide  and  protector. 

11.  The  captain  was  to  pay  all  dues,  money  for  safe  conducts, 

etc.,  in  full  for  the  pilgrims.  "Small  fees"  of  an  unspeci- 
fied nature  were,  however,  to  be  met  by  the  palmers  them- 
selves. 

12.  Each  ticket-holder  was  to  pay  forty-five  newly  minted  ducats 

to  the  captain,  one-half  at  Venice  and  one-half  at  Joppa. 

13.  The  goods  of  any  pilgrim  who  might  die  along  the  way  were 

to  be  turned  over  to  his  executor  and  were  not  to  be 
seized  by  the  captain, 

14.  The  passage  money  of  every  such  person  was  to  be  repaid  in 

half  to  his  executor. 


10 


15.  Bodies  of   dead   pilgrims   were  to   be   buried   in  the   nearest 

Christian  port  unless  their  comrades  specifically  con- 
sented to  burial  at  sea. 

16.  Should  a  passenger  wish  to  leave  his  party  at  any  time  when 

in  the  Holy  Land,  ten  ducats  fare  was  to  be  refunded 
him. 

17.  The  captain  was  to  make  arrangements  so  far  as  possible  for 

those  separating  themselves  from  the  group. 

18.  Pilgrims  were  to  be  given  space  in  which  to  keep  any  fowls 

that  they  might  wish  to  use  for  food.  The  galley  cook 
was  to  permit  the  use  of  his  fire  for  the  proper  prepa- 
ration of  this  additional  fare  at  the  passengers'  own 
pleasure. 

19.  Sick  persons  were  to  be  given  space  on  the  upper  deck  where 

this  was  deemed  advisable. 

20.  Anything    not    specified,    which    was    customary,    was    to    be 

thought  of  as  having  been  included, 

Venetian  contracts  were  registered  by  the  protonotaries  of  the 
city  after  having  been  signed. 

When  a  galley  had  been  contracted  for,  pilgrims  hastened  on 
board  to  select  their  quarters.  These  were  merely  spaces  on  the 
floor  sufficiently  large  to  accommodate  an  adult  each.  There  was 
always  a  rush  to  reserve  them  as  some  locations  were  naturally 
more  desirable  than  others  and  here  veteran  travelers  profited  by 
past  experience.  A  ticket  holder  acquired  the  right  to  a  given 
location  by  being  the  first  to  chalk  his  name  there. 

Each  passenger  supplied  his  own  mattress,  pillows,  sheets,  cov- 
erlets and  a  mat.  All  could  readily  be  purchased  at  near-by  mar- 
kets. As  soon  as  quarters  had  been  chosen  and  a  supply  of  bed- 
ding had  been  laid  in,  this  was  brought  on  board,  together  with  the 
owner's  baggage,  and  the  pilgrim  took  up  his  residence  on  the 
vessel  though  the  date  of  sailing  might  yet  be  some  time  distant. 
The  interim  was  spent  in  sight-seeing.  Of  particular  interest  to 
the  gaping  faithful  were  the  wonderful  Venetian  churches  whose 
patron  saints  enjoyed  high  repute  in  consequence  of  the  special 
protection  they  afforded  voyagers  to  distant  Jerusalem. 

At  length,  just  before  the  day  of  departure,  local  physicians 
gave  the  pilgrims  medical  examinations  and  supplied  them  with 
written  rules  for  the  safeguarding  of  health  at  sea  together  with 
physic  and  such  other  medicines  as  they  might  need. 


11 


II 

A   PILGRIM    SHIP 

Galleys  were  employed  in  transporting  west  Europeans  to  the 
Holy  Land.  These  were  propelled  by  both  sails  and  oars.  All 
were  alike  with  respect  to  shape  but  there  were  two  great  types 
according  to  motive  force,  triremes  and  biremes.  The  former, 
the  larger  of  the  two,  were  rowed  with  three  slaves  to  an  oar 
while  biremes  were  rowed  with  but  two  to  each. 

The  ship  on  which  Brother  Fabri  made  his  journey  of  1484  was 
a  trireme  thirty-three  cubits  in  length,  a  cubit  being  reckoned  as 
the  distance  between  the  finger  tips  of  a  man's  outstretched  arms. 
It  was  seven  cubits  wide  at  the  mast  while  the  distance  from  the 
keel  to  the  top  of  the  mast  was  eighteen.  When  the  oars  were 
extended  at  either  side,  the  vessel's  width  was  increased  to  thir- 
teen cubits.  Our  good  churchmen  states  that  "Venetian  galleys 
are  as  like  to  one  another  as  swallows'  nests."  The  description 
just  given,  then,  is  that  of  a  typical  trireme,  while  the  bireme 
would  be  slightly  smaller. 

Galleys  were  constructed  of  wood,  the  stout  timbers  being 
fastened  together  with  many  bolts,  chains  and  irons.  The  prows 
were  helmet  shaped  when  viewed  from  the  front  and  were  sharp- 
ened for  ramming  purposes.  Their  upper  parts  were  "beak 
shaped",  somewhat  like  a  dragon's  head  with  open  mouth.  Anchors 
were  fastened  along  the  sides. 

The  stern  was  higher  than  the  prow.  On  either  side  was  a  boat, 
one  large  and  one  small,  used  on  entering  harbors.  At  the  right 
side  of  the  stern  were  steps  by  which  one  descended  into  the  boats 
when  they  had  been  lowered. 

The  castle  was  three-storied,  the  upper  one  being  occupied  by 
the  pilot  and  his  helpers,  the  second  by  the  captain  and  the  third, 
the  lowest  one,  by  the  noble  ladies  of  the  party  while  also  serving 
as  a  store-room  for  the  captain's  treasure. 

At  the  stern  was  an  uncovered  kitchen  which  could  be  looked 
down  upon  from  the  upper  deck.  Beside  it  was  a  stable  housing 
animals  destined  for  slaughter,  such  as  hogs,  sheep,  goats,  oxen 
and  calves  and  below  them  was  a  cellar  containing  stores  of  edibles 
and  drink. 

The  pilgrim  ships  had  three  floors,  as  it  were.  The  galley 
slaves  occupied  the  upper  one,  the  deck,  living  and  rowing  on 
their  benches,  two  to  each  if  the  vessel  was  a  bireme  and  three  to 
each  in  the  case  of  a  trireme.  The  benches  were  arranged  in  paral- 
lel rows  along  the  two  sides  of  the  deck,  running  the  length  of 
the  vessel,  with  merchandise  piled  between  them.     The  captain's 

12 


room,  the  central  part  of  the  castle  and  quite  a  spacious  enclosed 
chamber,  was  on  a  level  with  the  upper  deck. 

The  greater  part  of  the  pilgrims,  male  and  female,  occupied  the 
cabin  making  up  the  second  or  middle  floor.  This  consisted  of  one 
large  room,  running  the  length  of  the  ship  from  the  kitchen  and 
stable  at  the  stern  to  a  separate  compartment  for  noble  women, 
the  lower  part  of  the  castle,  at  the  prow.  It  was  reached  from 
the  deck  by  means  of  loose  ladders  suspended  down  open  hatch- 
ways which  likewise  afforded  the  only  means  of  lighting  and  of 
ventilation. 

Each  pilgrim  had  his  own  floor  space,  as  already  noted.  These 
were  arranged  along  the  walls,  one  adjoining  another,  so  that  the 
travelers  lay  side  by  side.  They  slept  with  their  heads  towards  the 
outside  of  the  ship,  feet  to  feet.  Baggage  was  piled  in  the  open 
space  in  the  middle  of  the  cabin  and  so  cramped  were  these  quar- 
ters that  one  could  seldom  stretch  out  at  full  length. 

The  rounding  hold  of  the  galley  formed  the  lower  story.  It 
was  filled  with  sand  for  ballast  up  to  the  floor  of  the  cabin  on 
which  the  pilgrims  lay  and  they  frequently  lifted  up  the  planks  and 
buried  jugs  of  food  and  bottles  of  drink  in  the  wet,  cool  grains 
underneath. 

In  the  central  part  of  the  cabin,  where  the  mast  came  through 
from  the  upper  deck,  was  the  "well."  Such  water  as  had  seeped 
through  into  the  hold  collected  there.  It  had  an  offensive  odor 
and  was  consequently  frequently  pumped  out.  Along  the  outer 
edge  of  the  galley,  presumably  off  the  upper  deck,  were  toilets. 

Such  was  the  standard  pilgrim  ship  of  the  larger  size.  In 
time  of  expected  trouble,  an  archer  with  his  bow  and  quiver  of 
arrows  sat  on  the  end  of  each  rowing  bench,  alongside  the  mer- 
chandise. 


13 


Ill 

THE    BOAT    PERSONNEL 

The  captain  of  the  galley  was  the  owners'  representative.  He 
seldom  knew  a  great  deal  about  navigation  as  such  but  rather  de- 
voted himself  to  selecting  the  exact  course  to  be  followed,  to  de- 
termining what  stops  were  to  be  made  en  route  and  to  acting  in  a 
general  executive  capacity.  It  was  also  his  duty  to  settle  any  dis- 
putes which  might  arise  at  sea  between  either  pilgrims  or  mem- 
bers of  the  crew.  He  was  customarily  at  the  same  time  "noble, 
powerful,  rich,  wise  and  honourable." 

A  chief  of  armament  and  a  master  of  arms,  engaged  by  the 
commanding  officer,  laid  in  a  proper  store  of  weapons  and  ammu- 
nition. A  steward,  likewise  named  by  him,  was  given  charge  of 
the  food  and  planned  all  meals.  Innumerable  grievances  against 
him  accumulated  and  he  was  commonly  most  cordially  hated  before 
the  close  of  a  voyage.  The  "caliph"  was  responsible  for  the 
cargo  and  repairs.  He  looked  after  the  well  being  of  the  galley 
in  general  and  was  an  official  of  no  mean  importance. 

Each  ship  had  one  pilot  who  was  advised  by  astrologers,  sooth- 
sayers and  kindred  folk.  Compasses  were  used  to  kfeep  the  vessel 
in  its  course,  but  if  it  went  astray  and  got  into  unfamiliar  waters, 
the  helmsman  was  required  to  steer  for  the  nearest  port  where 
someone  well  acquainted  with  local  sailing  conditions  was  engaged 
in  his  stead.  The  pilot  was  further  assisted  by  a  compass  man  and 
a  rudder  man. 

The  chief  under-officer,  the  mate,  stood  at  the  head  of  the  crew. 
He  was  frequently  a  cruel  man,  necessarily  of  powerful  build  to 
maintain  the  proper  spirit  of  subordination.  Next  in  rank  was  the 
boatswain,  who  kept  a  critical  eye  on  the  ropes,  sails  and  anchors. 
He  was  in  command  of  a  group  of  some  ten  men  known  as  "com- 
pani" — reckless  fellows  called  upon  to  risk  their  lives  in  keeping 
the  vessel  trim  during  storms.  Because  of  the  nature  of  their  work 
they  were  well  paid. 

Below  the  boatswain  were  the  mariners,  several  in  number. 
They  were  generally  old,  respected  persons  who  directed  the  com- 
mon seamen  at  their  work.  Orders  were  sung  out  to  the  latter 
and  they  replied  in  turn.  Thus  all  labour  was  performed  in 
unison.  The  variety  of  chants  was  at  first  of  great  interest  to 
the  palmers  aboard  a  galley  but  the  incessant  calling  back  and 
forth  ultimately  came  to  be  rather  disturbing. 

The  seamen  at  this  time  were  galley  slaves.  They  sat  on  cross 
benches  on  the  upper  deck  to  work  the  oars  and,  when  not  em- 
ployed in  that   fashion,  they  performed  any  other  services  that 

14 


might  be  required.  They  were  harshly  treated  and  brutal  pun- 
ishments, such  as  being  beaten  on  the  bare  back  with  scourges, 
were  the  ordinary  thing.  The  more  unruly  were  chained  to  their 
benches  and  all  were  shackled  when  a  port  was  entered.  They 
were  kept  under  strict  surveillance  by  trusties  from  among  their 
own  number  who  reported  infringements  of  orders  to  the  mariners 
and  were  rewarded  accordingly. 

Galley  slaves  were  captives  of  war  who  had  been  purchased  by 
the  captain.  They  were  of  mixed  nationality  and  creed  and  ordi- 
narily spoke  several  languages  each. 

In  time  of  calm  their  labour  was  of  a  most  arduous  nature,  but 
when  the  wind  was  fair  and  there  was  no  other  work  to  be  done, 
they  passed  their  time  in  dicing  or  at  cards. 

Among  the  slaves  were  some  who  served  the  pilgrims  as  tailors, 
shoemakers  or  washermen  during  spare  moments.  All  were 
thieves  and  all  were  likewise  merchants,  having  small  stocks  of 
provisions  and  goods  to  sell. 

In  addition  to  the  officers  and  crew  members  already  mentioned, 
each  vessel  carried  a  few  cannoneers,  trumpeters,  physicians,  bar- 
bers and  singers.  There  was  likewise  a  clerk  in  charge  of  the 
records. 


15 


IV 
COMMUNITY    LIFE    AT    SEA 

On  the  open  Mediterranean,  each  galley  was  a  little  world  in 
itself.  Acquaintanceships  were  quickly  struck  up  and  a  spirit  of 
general  good  fellowship  prevailed.  The  ship  officers,  nobles  and 
clergy  constituted  the  aristocracy  of  the  voyage  but  they  mixed 
freely  with  the  more  humble  folk  aboard. 

Daylight  hours  were  spent  on  the  deck  near  the  center  mast 
about  which  there  was  an  open  space.  Awnings  stretched  here 
afforded  shelter  from  sun  and  rain.  The  activities  of  the  oars- 
men afforded  some  diversion,  but  time  inevitably  came  to  hang 
heavily  on  almost  everyone's  hands.  The  majority  of  passengers 
soon  fell  into  a  sort  of  easy  going  life,  passing  the  long  days  in 
drinking,  gambling,  playing  cards  or  chess,  engaging  in  idle  talk, 
trading,  reading,  writing,  sleeping,  or  what  not,  as  the  spirit 
moved. 

Gaming  was  a  great  evil.  Pots  frequently  ran  as  high  as  200 
ducats  and  many  lost  all  of  their  possessions,  even  to  the  clothes 
on  their  backs,  through  courting  the  Goddess  of  Chance.  Blas- 
phemy and  incessant  bickering  were  natural  accompaniments. 
There  was  comparatively  little  drunkenness,  for  most  of  the  voy- 
agers had  been  bibulous  since  infancy  and  only  sweet  wine  was 
served.  Large  numbers  carried  musical  instruments  and  amused 
themselves  and  others  as  well  by  playing,  singing  and  dancing. 
Harpooning  was  a  popular  and  exciting,  though  rather  unprof- 
itable, sport. 

Worship  was  held  three  times  a  day — at  morning,  noon  and 
night.  Services  were  conducted  on  the  upper  deck  beside  the  mast 
with  voyaging  churchmen  officiating  in  turn.  Mass  was  first  said 
for  pilgrims  and  officers  and  then  for  the  galley  slaves.  However, 
many  additional  prayers  were  offered  by  the  pious  through  both 
day  and  night  and  some  could  be  seen  at  almost  any  time  count- 
ing their  beads  and  bowing  head  in  meditation  or  supplication. 
Holy  Eucharist  could  not  be  received  nor  was  extreme  unction  ad- 
ministered because  of  conditions  on  board  the  vessel.  Confession 
might  be  made  to  any  priest. 

The  dead  were  normally  shrouded  and  buried  in  the  nearest 
Christian  port  of  call ;  at  times,  however,  with  the  consent  of  the 
deceased's  traveling  companions,  a  corpse  was  cast  into  the  sea 
after  having  been  weighted  down.  A  special  service  was  then 
held  and,  as  the  priests  chanted,  the  body  was  thrown  overboard 
by  the  galley  slaves.  In  the  case  of  a  Venetian  Grandee  dying, 
his  body  was  temporarily  interred  in  the  hold  sand  used  for  bal- 
last and  was  subsequently  exhumed  when  the  ship  again  reached 
the  home  harbour. 

16 


The  eflfects  of  pilgrims  meeting  death  en  route  were  inventoried 
by  the  galley  clerk,  who  likewise  paid  their  debts  and  presented 
the  accounts  to  the  captain  where  there  were  no  friends  on  hand 
to  perform  those  services.  Unless  otherwise  specified  by  contract, 
the  commanding  officer  fell  heir  to  the  victims'  bedding  and  cloth- 
ing while  their  other  goods  were  turned  over  to  intimates  or  rela- 
tives. 

A  daily  and  necessary  occupation  was  the  catching  of  lice  and 
other  vermin.  Inhabiting  close  quarters  in  a  dark,  poorly  aired 
and  seldom  cleaned  cabin,  the  pilgrims  were  naturally  much  tor- 
mented by  crawling  things.  Ship  rats,  too,  contaminated  much  of 
their  private  stores  of  food  and  it  was  a  nightly  occurrence  for  the 
palmers  to  be  awakened  by  rodents  scurrying  over  their  faces. 

Two  meals  a  day  were  served  under  contract — dinner  and  sup- 
per. Passengers  took  precedence.  Tables  for  the  men  were  set 
on  the  poop  and  and  a  mad  rush  followed  the  giving  of  the  signal 
that  all  was  in  readiness  since  the  rule  first  come,  first  served,  was 
observed.  Churchmen  and  lords  sat  with  lesser  folk  and  fared  as 
best  they  might.  There  was  no  order  whatever  and  everyone 
scrambled  to  secure  large  and  choice  helpings.  Waiters  attended 
the  ladies  in  the  cabin,  as  well  as  the  sick,  who  might  be  either  in 
bed  or  on  deck. 

Food  was  dressed  after  the  Italian  fashion.  There  was  always 
a  salad  with  oil  if  greens  could  be  obtained.  Meat  and  pudding 
alternated  with  a  mess  of  meal  or  bruised  grain  or  with  panada 
and  cheese.  On  fast  days,  fish  was  served  with  egg  cake  and  a 
pudding.  Bread  was  eaten  for  several  days  out  of  port,  but  as  it 
regularly  spoiled  in  less  than  a  week,  biscuits  were  then  substi- 
tuted for  it.  There  was  always  as  much  wine  as  pilgrims  wished 
available.  Some  lords  and  ladies  to  whom  the  regular  menu  was 
dissatisfying,  came  equipped  not  only  with  private  supplies,  but 
with  their  favorite  culinary  artists  as  well. 

Next  came  the  officers'  turn.  They  ate  much  the  same  food  as 
did  the  passengers,  but  from  silver  rather  than  from  pewter 
dishes. 

The  galley  slaves  then  messed  on  their  rowing  benches,  pre- 
paring their  own  meals.  They  were  likewise  given  the  portions 
of  the  nobles  who  chose  to  look  out  for  themselves.  There  were 
always  several  cooks  aboard  and  if  voyagers  without  servants 
wished  their  own  food  prepared  these  individuals  were  properly 
feed.  Passengers  with  the  lunching  habit  either  provided  them- 
selves with  eatables  at  the  ports  touched  and  engaged  the  cooks 
to  prepare  it  for  them  in  odd  moments  or  bought  what  they  could 
from  the  galley  slaves.  The  latter,  strange  as  it  may  seem,  always 
had  provisions  and  wine  for  sale  and  engaged  in  lively  commerce 
along  these  lines. 

17 


After  evening  service,  the  pilgrims  climbed  down  the  hatchway 
ladders  to  their  quarters.  Altercations  on  a  grand  scale  promptly 
ensued.  The  beds  were  narrow,  the  pillows  hard,  the  air  was 
close,  bad  odors  permeated  the  atmosphere,  vermin  was  a  constant 
source  of  annoyance  and  the  noise  of  the  animals,  as  well  as  the 
shouts  of  the  galley  slaves  who  gambled  late  into  the  night  and  the 
groans  of  the  sick  made  sleep  a  difficult  matter.  Then,  too,  many 
of  the  travelers  themselves  lit  candles  and  diced,  frequently  al- 
most until  dawn.  In  groping  their  weary  way  to  their  berths,  they 
woke  their  slumbering  comrades  by  stepping  upon  them  and  loud 
and  numerous  were  the  imprecations  from  these  unfortunates. 

About  sunrise,  the  bedding  was  rolled  up  and  hung  on  nails 
above  the  sleeping  spaces,  after  which  everyone  went  up  onto  the 
deck.  Because  of  their  thievish  inclinations,  the  galley  slaves 
were  not  permitted  to  descend  into  the  cabin.  However,  the  pil- 
grims did  so  much  pilfering  among  themselves  that  no  one's 
property  was  safe  unless  on  his  own  person,  and  then  only  when 
closely  guarded.  Little  things,  such  as  handkerchiefs,  shirts  and 
belts,  were  constantly  disappearing. 

Frequent  stops  were  made,  especially  when  the  weather  was 
inclement.  Any  passengers  who  cared  to  were  then  permitted  to 
go  ashore  and  the  opportunity  was  seized  with  great  alacrity. 
Because  the  inns,  as  a  rule,  were  houses  of  ill  fame,  the  palmers 
preferred  to  engage  rooms  in  private  homes  where  each  group  pre- 
pared its  own  food. 

The  natives  were  generally  hospitable  and  did  considerable 
business  during  the  galley's  stay.  Fights  between  the  pilgrims  and 
residents  of  the  ports  of  call  were  by  no  means  infrequent,  for  the 
former  were  inclined  to  profiteer  and  the  latter  all  too  often  had 
long  fingers. 

Sight  seeing  was  a  great  feature  of  such  stop-overs.  Churches 
and  monasteries  in  particular  drew  many  visitors,  the  more  so  since 
the  latter  dispensed  lavish  hospitality.  The  ship's  officers  and 
galley  slaves  employed  their  time  in  trafficking  with  local  mer- 
chants who  came  aboard.  When  sailing  conditions  were  once 
more  favorable,  trumpets  were  blown  as  a  signal  for  all  to  come 
on  board.  Those  lingering  too  long  generally  caught  up  with  the 
party  at  the  next  port.  The  ill  were  left  behind  to  die  or  recuper- 
ate. 

A  galley  always  flew  four  banners  on  leaving  port,  the  pilgrim 
one  (a  red  cross  on  a  white  background),  that  of  the  home  city 
and  those  of  the  Pope  and  the  captain.  Many  ships  under  the 
black  flag  infested  tlie  sea  and,  to  guard  against  them,  pilgrim  ves- 
sels seldom  struck  out  directly  across  the  open  Mediterranean,  but 
rather  hugged  the  shore  line.  Boats  were  armed  against  pirate 
craft  with  small  catapults,  bows,  arrows  and  spears. 

18 


Landmarks  were  closely  watched  for  by  the  pilot  on  following 
the  coast. 

Whenever  two  vessels  met  at  sea,  the  one  that  held  itself  to  be 
the  more  important  signalled  the  other  by  firing  a  cannon.  The 
master  of  the  lesser  bottom  then  came  on  board  to  exchange 
greetings  and  gifts.  In  the  case  of  Venetian  galleys,  the  bigger 
invariably  hailed  the  smaller  one  and  the  latter  was,  by  law, 
obliged  to  respond  to  the  summons.  If  the  smaller  ship  was  not 
a  Venetian  one,  but  came  nevertheless,  all  was  good.  If,  however 
it  failed  to  do  so,  preparations  were  made  for  an  encounter.  This 
could  then  be  averted  only  by  the  lesser  vessel  dipping  its  sail  and 
its  commander  hastening  over  and  satisfactorily  explaining  why 
custom  had  not  been  complied  with  sooner. 

Keen  rivalry  prevailed  among  the  captains  from  a  given  port 
to  see  who  could  get  his  passengers  to  the  Holy  Land  first  for,  by 
the  close  of  the  fifteenth  century,  the  Saracens  would  admit  but  one 
party  at  a  time  and  late-comers  were  obliged  to  wait  until  those 
more  fortunate  than  themselves  had  completed  the  tour  of  inspec- 
tion before  they  could  commence  it. 

During  the  last  days  of  the  journey,  the  weary  and  restless  pil- 
grims constantly  climbed  up  into  the  rigging  in  the  hope  of  get- 
ting the  first  glimpse  of  the  land  of  their  dreams.  The  question  of 
when  the  shores  of  Syria  and  Palestine  would  be  sighted  was  the 
all-absorbing  topic  of  conversation  and  there  was  much  betting 
done  as  to  precisely  when  this  eagerly  looked  forward  to  event 
would  occur. 

Brother  Fabri's  outward-bound  trip,  a  typical  one  of  his  day, 
required  precisely  a  month — from  the  first  of  June  to  the  first  of 
July.  Part  of  this  time  was  spent  in  ports  of  call  en  route,  hence 
the  vessels  can  be  said  to  have  made  very  good  time. 

When  the  faint  blue  land  mass  at  length  appeared  above  the 
eastern  horizon,  a  meeting  of  thanksgiving  was  called  by  the  cap- 
tain.   After  it,  wild  revelry  prevailed  and  joy  knew  no  bounds. 

On  the  galley  reaching  its  destination  (Joppa  in  the  case  of 
Brother  Fabri),  gallant  show  of  any  kind  was  rigorously  avoided 
so  that  harbour  guards  might  know  that  it  came  peacefully.  The 
captain  promptly  sent  agents  ashore  to  negotiate  for  a  safe  con- 
duct covering  all  his  passengers.  Everyone  save  the  agents  re- 
mained on  board  until  the  necessary  document  arrived.  When  at 
length  it  was  delivered,  the  party  disembarked  and  began  the  short 
march  inland  to  the  Holy  City.  The  captain  served  as  leader  and 
armed  escorts  to  afford  protection  against  fanatical  natives  were 
furnished  by  the  ruler  of  Jerusalem.  The  ship  meantime  re- 
mained in  the  harbour  being  fitted  out  for  the  homeward  journey 
which  normally  began  in  about  thirty  days. 

19 


BIBLIOGRAPHY. 

Fratris  Felicis  Fabri  Evagatorium  in  Terrae  Sanctae,  Arahiae  et 
Egypti  peregrinationem.  Edidit  Cunradus  Dietericus  Hassler. 
3  vols.,  Stuttgardiae,  1843-49. 

"The  Wanderings  of  Felix  Fabri"  (Translated  from  the  original 
Latin  by  Aubrey  Stewart,  M.  A.),  in  The  Library  of  the  Pales- 
tine Pilgrims'  Text  Society,  13  vols.,  London,  n.  d.,  vols.  VII, 
VIII,  IX  and  X. 


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